As Manchu, here are the points I conclude about Manchus and Mongolians: 1. We share similar languages and traditional scripts (writing systems)- they are similar, but not quite the same. Traits are aspects of a character's personality, background, or physique that make him better at some activities and worse at others. In many ways, traits resemble feats: A character can have only a limited number of traits, and each trait provides some benefit. Unlike feats, however, traits always carry a corresponding drawback.

1. Mb Viking Conquest Special Traits
2. Viking Conquest Character Creation
3. Vikings Conquest Of England

You can choose between three different classes, each with its unique gears and weapons. Characters in Viking Vengeance are visually distinct and grant access to different skills and items that have to be used in combination with the God mechanic. Viking Conquest From the creators of the popular “Brytenwalda” mod, “Viking Conquest” is a brand new DLC for Mount & Blade Warband! This single and multi player DLC brings Mount & Blade to historical Dark Age Britain, complemented by authentic scenes and cultures.

The Vikings^{[note 1]} were ancient seafarers from Scandinavia who lived during the Viking Age, circa 793–1066 CE. Ancient Norse explorers even managed to reach the New World before Columbus. Their relevancy to RationalWiki lies in the fact that a central part of Nazi mythology are the ancient Germanics, of which the Vikings were a part of, so it goes without saying that having an article refuting some of the nonsense surrounding the Vikings would be within our purview as a wiki.

• 1History
• 3White nationalist figureheads
• 4Miscellaneous bits

History[edit]

The Vikings sailed to Iceland, Greenland, and even discovered North America before Columbus but after quite a lot of other people.

According to the Icelandic Sagas, Erik the Red (c. 950-c. 1003) established the first colony on Greenland.^[1] His son, Lief Erikson (c. 970-c. 1020), later founded Vinland, the first recorded settlement of European origin in continental North America.^[2] One settlement of the ancient Norse found in North America was the Norse ruin of L'Anse aux Meadows, located in what is now modern day Canada, specifically in Newfoundland.

Although the Vikings didn't actually go to Mars, something else called Viking did.

Much of their history is described in the Sagas, which aren't entirely accurate but are still better than a lot of what we know about medieval Europe.

Early history[edit]

Nobody knows exactly why the Vikings first started to embark on their long raids, but it may have something to do with the warming occurring in Europe at the time. Whereas sea-ice would've previously blocked Viking longships from passage through icy waters, thanks to the warming, they could embark on even longer trips than before.^[3] And while the Norse had been fighting and raiding amongst themselves for centuries, the rest of Europe was starting to cool down after the hellhole that was Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Nevertheless, the newfound peace, which itself was largely thanks to the efforts in reunifying Western Europe by Charlemagne, would find itself undone by the Viking marauders.

Other reasons for the Viking expansions could also have included the population size reaching max capacity in Scandinavia. Along with this came political unification of previously independent petty kingdoms and tribal chiefdoms into large empires, with all the political centralization that brings. Indeed, around the time of the first Viking expansions, the semi-legendary Norse king Harald Fairhair was unifying the feuding jarldoms of Scandinavia into the Kingdom of Norway, and so this may have been one of several political, environmental, and economic impetuses leading to the Viking Age.^[4]

Advances in shipbuilding technology were another reason behind the Viking expansion, where advanced seafaring longships were built according to new designs. Prior to this, the Vikings were only capable of short journeys in what were essentially river craft.

While it is true that the first Viking raids occurred several decades before Fairhair was born, the very first being the sacking of the English monastery of Lindisfarne in 793 CE (which was accompanied by fiery dragons flying in the sky^{Do You Believe That?}), it was only with Fairhair's rise to power that the Viking Age truly reached its height, as more and more Norsemen fled Scandinavia, seeking their fortunes elsewhere. It's worth noting that prior to the rise of Harald Fairhair, the previous Viking expeditions were either raiding parties or trading expeditions, or sometimes both, since the Vikings were not only pirates, but excellent businessmen as well. It is only with the rise of Harald Fairhair that the first Viking expeditions intent on conquering land began to set out, as with the arrival of the Great Heathen Army in England and the subsequent formation of the Danelaw in what is now Northern England.

Later history[edit]

Around 850 AD the Norse warlord Harald Hardrada went on the warpath, hellbent on unifying all of Scandinavia, which he undoubtedly succeeded in doing. His uncanny success was perhaps the ultimate impetus leading to the mass migration that led to the arrival of the Great Heathen Army in England and the formation of the Normans. One of the refugees fleeing Hardrada's wrath was one Rollo, who would later become Duke Rollo I of Normandy, since Rollo led a Viking expedition not to England, but to France, where he made a deal with Charles the Bald, who was the Carolingian king of France at the time, in which Rollo and his cohorts would convert to Christianity and stop conducting extensive raiding in return for a fiefdom that would later be called 'Normandy', after Rollo and his kin, who would later be known as the Normans.

The Normans would become very important later on, but for now let's take a detour and consider Norse refugees fleeing to the Ukraine, who were also refugees fleeing from Hardrada's wrath, but instead of going west, they went east and founded a state that would ultimately become the progenitor of modern Russia. They were known as the Rus', and the state these Norse pioneers founded would in time become known as the Kievan Rus'.

These Norsemen were led by the Norse chieftain Oleg the Seer, who succeeded in unifying the various Russic and Slavic tribes and successfully establishing the Kievan Rus' in what is now Ukraine. However, it wasn't until the rise of Vladimir the Great that the Rus' would shed their old pagan ways and embrace the light of the Lord Christianize as a result of political expediency on Vlad's part. Indeed, the reason the Russians today are Eastern Orthodox and not, say, Catholic is ultimately due to Vladimir's pragmatic adoption of Christianity, which itself was done in order to ingratiate himself with the Byzantines, who were still politically relevant at the time, even after the four-century-long bashing they had received from the Muslims ever since the rise of Islam under the auspice of Muhammad and his successors.

However, the Viking expansions didn't end in Russia. Some Viking mercenaries went south and found themselves in the service of the Byzantine emperors as the Varangian guard, who were formed as a replacement of the old Praetorian guard; the Byzantines viewed foreign mercenaries as more reliable because they lacked political loyalties and could be counted upon to crush local Byzantine revolts without hesitation owing to the fact that they were, after all, foreign mercenaries only loyal to their paychecks.^[5]

Meanwhile, back in England, things had been going well, with England being Viking-free for over half a century thanks to the combined efforts of Alfred the Great, Edward the Elder, and Aethelflaed, the last one being particularly notable due to the fact that she was a woman. But all good things must come to an end. In 1006 the English throne was claimed by the Norwegian warlord Sweyn Forkbeard, who united England and Norway into a single unified country. Sweyn in particular was the father of notable English king Canute the Great.^[6]

Canute undertook many reforms as King of England, and also unified England and most of Scandinavia into a single unified monarchy. Canute was also prudent enough to convert to Christianity, and was notable for being the first Viking king to be acknowledged by the Pope as Christian. Canute was initially harsh in his early years of power, executing several notorious English outlaws, but several years into his reign, he became more reasonable and fair as his position was no longer under any significant threat. Canute would be the last Norse King of England, and many of his reforms were undone after his death.^[7]

After Canute's death, England fell into the hands of the native Anglo-Saxons once more. The next thirty or so years would be relatively uneventful under the rule of Edward the Confessor, but after Edward's death, things got heated in disputes over succession, with three different parties all claiming the throne, two of whom were in some way related to the Vikings of yore, William the Conquerer, Duke of Normandy, and Tolstig, a Norse warlord whose claim to the throne ultimately originated with Canute. The Norse invaders were repulsed by the successor to Edward the Confessor, Harold Godwinson, but it was a Pyrrhic victory. Shortly after Tolstig's invading army was defeated at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, William's army arrived, leaving Harold with no time to rest, and thus the Battle of Hastings begun. Still, the Saxons put up a good fight, and the Normans would've lost the battle if it weren't for the sudden slaying of Harold by a stray arrow.^[8]

The influence the Normans had on the English nation cannot be understated, after the Norman conquest of England nothing was the same. For starters, traditional Anglo-Saxon laws of governance were replaced by Norman ones. Indeed, it was the Normans who introduced traditional mainland European-style feudalism to England. With the Norman Conquest of England, the Viking Age, and by extension the Early Middle Ages, were over. Nothing would be the same. The Anglo-Saxon elite was almost entirely overthrown and replaced by the Normans.^[9] Indeed, this caused a substantial group of Anglo-Saxon refugees to flee to Constantinople and join the aforementioned Varangian guard alongside their Norse cousins.^[10]

Mb Viking Conquest Special Traits

The English language too would be forever changed, with the Old English lexicon incorporating enormous amounts of French, Latin, and Old Norse words.^{[note 2]} This weird mixture of languages would lead to drastic changes in the English language. The need to communicate with the Norsemen in the Danelaw would lead to the simplification of English grammar^[11], changing it from a fusional one like modern German to an analytical one like Mandarin. It would also lead to such oddities as the words for livestock and poultry themselves being largely Germanic, but the word for their food products being French (ex. including cow/beef, sheep/mutton, pig/pork, etc.)^{[note 3]}. In a way, the Viking Age never ended, as their influence lives on to this day.

Religion and mythology[edit]

The Norse worshiped the classic Germanic pantheon, but had a few... extra deities as well, such as Loki, who is not found in any of the other Germanic mythologies.^{[12][note 4]} The Norse would first encounter Christianity in the aforementioned Sack of Lindisfarne which occurred in 793 CE, but Norse Christianization wouldn't really start to take place until the conversion of Guthrum from traditional Germanic paganism to Christianity as a result of the peace process with the English king Alfred the Great.^[13]

It has been suggested that the reason why Mjölnir (the hammer of Thor) pendants were so popular during the Viking Age among Norsemen was that it was an act of defiance against forced conversion to Christianity, itself being a counter-symbol to the Christian cross.^[14] The Christianization of the Norse took centuries and was a long, gradual process, and even during the 19th century, Scandinavian peasants would sing odes to Odin and tell folktales of the old Germanic gods.^[15]

White nationalist figureheads[edit]

The Vikings are popular with Neo-Nazis for obvious reasons. In recent years there has been a trend of films showing Vikings hanging out with black and Middle Eastern dudes.^[16] This is because the Vikings were traders as well as raiders, so part of the profession would've inevitably involved having some form of contact with non-European peoples.

Estonian nationalism[edit]

The Estonian Vikings are a central part of Estonian nationalism. Simply put, having awesome Viking warriors as part of your ancestry is always a boon, but the reasoning goes deeper than this, as for mainly political reasons Estonia prefers to consider itself a Baltic nation or a part of Scandinavia, and not part of the former Russian bloc or Eastern Europe.

There are two main problems with the idea of Estonian vikings.

1. There is no evidence that the Viking remains in Estonia were the ancestors of today's Estonians.
2. The Estonians who lived in Estonia during the Viking Age were actually a different cultural group than modern Estonians.

There is however, some archaeological evidence of Viking-style warriors on the island of Saaremaa, and proponents of the Estonian Viking theory tend to dub these Oeselians (after the islands' Swedish name, Ösel). This is generally combined with some contemporary documents which briefly mention some raiders from somewhere in the vicinity of Estonia.^[17][18]

It should be note that not even the archaeologists who excavated the remains made any comments about ethnicity.^{[note 5]}

Miscellaneous bits[edit]

Hats with horns[edit]

It is a common misconception that Viking helmets featured horns.^[19] Viking helmets were typically iron and bowl shaped, with the more advanced version including face guards, which could be decorated.^[20]The iconic, but inaccurate, depiction of Viking headgear originates from German nationalism. A process of imaginatively combining Norse and medieval German history resulted in a romanticized Nordic identity where characters combined traits from both.^[21]

Runes[edit]

Runes (or fuþark) were an early writing system for Germanic languages, mainly used by the Vikings to write Proto-Norse and Old Norse. There were several Runic alphabets, generally used during different time periods.

From the 2nd to 8th century, the Elder fuþark was the main Runic alphabet, and used for writing in Proto-Norse. The Vikings as a whole emerged slightly after this time; however, very early Viking artifacts do feature these runes.

From the 9th to 11th centuries, the Younger fuþark became dominant in Scandinavia, with several other Runic alphabets used elsewhere, such as Anglo-Saxon runes in France and Britain, and Marcomannic runes, which was a mix of the two possibly used by Germanic peoples in Bavaria, although it is suspected by some that Marcomannic runes were an invention by later scholars attempting to recreate a later alphabet in runic form.

Berserker rage[edit]

Copper bracelets[edit]

Apparently, Vikings suffered a lot from arthritis.^[22]

Viking disease[edit]

Viking disease or Dupuytren's contracture affects 10% of Swedish men, mainly in old age, and stops them straightening one or more fingers.^[23][24]

Viking Conquest Character Creation

Black Vikings[edit]

Some Afrocentrists think the Vikings were black. No, really.^[25] Never mind the fact that black people aren't often found far north of the equator for obvious reasons (outside of immigrants, there are no indigenous black peoples found that far north of the tropics), and that most people found in Scandinavia today have a light skin tone, including all ethnic groups indigenous to Scandinavia, who share demonstrable ancestral and cultural links to the Vikings of yore.

Algonquian Vikings[edit]

Some Norwegian dude once wrote an eight-volume etymological dictionary called The Viking and the Red Man: The Old Norse Origin of the Algonquin Language (pretty catchy title for a dictionary) in which he tried to show that the Algonquian languages have tons of words from Old Norse. Never mind the fact that Old Norse is Indo-European whereas Algonquian, is well, Algic, or the fact that the two language families are indigenous to two completely separate continents.^{[note 6]}

Peaceable[edit]

The Vikings didn't exclusively deal out chaos and bloodshed. They were also keen merchants, as well as quite hygienic, being considerably more clean (for the day, of course), than the peoples of the various nations they raided and traded in, and so wooed quite a lot of women because of it. Because, let's be real, anyone would rather be with someone who doesn't smell like a bloated corpse and bathes at least a few more times a year than the average medieval peasant.^[26]

Feminism[edit]

The former Viking strongholds of Iceland, Norway, and Sweden are tops in gender equity today.^[27] So perhaps it shouldn't have been a huge surprise that DNA testing and osteology analysis confirmed that the remains of a Viking tactician buried at Birka, Sweden, were of a woman.^[28] Women in general in Viking Age Scandinavian society at the time held more power than their peers in continental Europe during the time, being heads of their households and being primarily responsible for textile production, among other things.^[29] While they would have ultimately been subordinate to their husbands, their dominance in domestic affairs cannot be understated, as this epitaph from the grave of a woman buried in the Viking Age attests to:

There's also good evidence that some women were actually merchants, as graves have been found with goods buried in them such as coins, weights, needles, and so on and so forth. Interestingly, these finds only occur at places that were key trading centers of the time, and one of them was Birka, Sweden, interestingly enough. While this isn't conclusive in and of itself, as it is possible that these women merely came from merchant families, it says something as to the status of these women in medieval Scandinavian society.^[29]

See also[edit]

• Noble savage - what Romanticists often tended to depict them as
• Scandinavia - where they ultimately hailed from
• Middle Ages - the time period the Vikings existed in

External links[edit]

• Viking Answer Lady for all your Viking queries

Notes[edit]

1. ↑Derived from the Old Norse term vikingr, roughly meaning 'pirate' or 'raider' in modern parlance, it should be noted that vikingr was both a noun and a verb, since being a Viking was viewed as a profession, it was often said that men would 'go Viking', meaning they went on a raiding/trading expedition overseas.
2. ↑Though it should come as no surprise that the core of the modern English language is still essentially Anglo-Saxon.
3. ↑The Normans spoke a form of French simply called 'Norman'. Even though they were partial Viking descendants, the Normans had completely assimilated themselves into wider French culture, such that essentially nothing outside of their name was Norse anymore
4. ↑However, Frank's Casket dating back to the 7th Century CE depicts the slaying of the Germanic god Balder by Mistletoe, (who in the Eddas was convinced by Loki to slay Balder after Freyja, Balder's mother, had gotten everything else but the lowly mistletoe, to swear an oath not to harm Balder in any way her folly being that she believed the mistletoe to be so insignificant as to not be worthy of her attention, since how could such a pathetic thing even be capable of killing a god such as Balder? Loki ended up proving her wrong), so this could be interpreted as evidence that Loki wasn't solely indigenous to the Norse pantheon and rather belonged to the wider Germanic pantheon.
5. ↑However, it is probable that these ancient 'Viking-style warriors' were in some way ancestral to the modern day Estonians, but probably no more than any other modern Baltic ethnicity.
6. ↑The two continents in question being North America and Eurasia. Arguably, the latter depends on one's own personal definition of 'continent,' but let's save the semantics for later, mkay?
7. ↑It should be noted this is the only verse on a Swedish scribed stone commemorating a woman found to date.

References[edit]

1. ↑History of Greenland, a story of Inuits and VikingsGovernment of Greenland.
2. ↑Leif Eriksson the LuckyEncyclopædia Britannica.
3. ↑'How the Vikings Became the World's First Climate Change Profiteers' from Salon
4. ↑Harald Fairhair from Badass of the Week
5. ↑Maggio, Edward (1997). Private Security in the 21st Century: Concepts and Applications. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-07637-5190-6.
6. ↑'Vikings' - English Monarchs
7. ↑'Canute the Great' - English Monarchs
8. ↑'Harold Godwinson' - English Monarchs
9. ↑Thomas, Hugh M. (April 2003). 'The Significance and Fate of the Native English Landowners of 1086'. The English Historical Review118 (476): 303–333.
10. ↑Heath, Ian (1995). Byzantine Armies AD 1118–1461. London: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-85532-347-6.
11. ↑'Old English' - The History of the English Language
12. ↑'Loki' - Ancient History Encyclopedia
13. ↑Dumville, David; Lapidge, Michael (1985). The Annals of St Neots with Vita Prima Sancti Neoti, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: a Collaborative Edition. Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-85991-117-7.
14. ↑'Thor' - The Ancient History Encyclopedia
15. ↑Thorpe, Benjamin (1851). Northern Mythology, Compromising the Principal Traditions and Superstitions of Scandinavia, North Germany, and the Netherlands: Compiled from Original and Other Sources. 3 vols. Volume 2 Scandinavian Popular Traditions and Superstitions. Lumley. WorldCat Catalog
16. ↑See the Wikipedia article on The 13th Warrior.
17. ↑http://www.nordicestonia.com/nordic/estonian-vikings/
18. ↑http://www.viking.no/e/info-sheets/estonia/estonia.htm
19. ↑Viking helmets, National Museum of Denmark
20. ↑Viking Age Arms and Armor - Viking Helmets, hurstwic.
21. ↑Types of Viking Helmets, Harry Atkins, 16 May 2018
22. ↑Copper Magnetic Bracelets - Viking, HolisticMagnets.com
23. ↑Needle release optimal treatment for Viking disease, Science Daily
24. ↑The Vikings and Baron Dupuytren's disease, Adrian E Flatt, Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2001 Oct; 14(4): 378–384.
25. ↑THE ANCIENT CELTS AND VIKINGS WERE BLACK PEOPLE – BY DR CLYDE WINTERS, Africa Resource
26. ↑'Vikings were quite hygienic and trimmed and dyed their beards to woo women'
27. ↑[World Economic Forum. The Global Gender Gap Report: 2018.http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2018.pdf Accessed Sep. 13, 2019.]
28. ↑Michael Greshko, 'Famous Viking warrior was a woman, DNA reveals.' National Geographic, Sep. 12, 2017. Accessed Sep. 13, 2019.
29. ↑ ^29.029.129.2'Women in the Viking Age' - Ancient History Encyclopedia

Medieval art—which includes a wide variety of art and architecture—refers to a period also known as the Middle Ages, which roughly spanned from the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D. to the early stages of the Renaissance in the 14th century. Work produced during this era emerged from the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and the iconographic style of the early Christian church, fused with the “barbarian” culture of Northern Europe.

What developed over the course of these ten centuries yielded a diverse range of artistic styles and periods, some of which include the early Christian and Byzantine, Anglo-Saxon and Viking, Romanesque, and Gothic. Grand monuments and architectural masterpieces such as the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, celebrated mosaics in Ravenna, and illuminated manuscripts like the Lindisfarne Gospels all emerged from the medieval period. Because the period produced a high volume of art bearing historical significance, it remains a rich area of study for scholars and collectors, and is viewed as an enormous achievement that later influenced the development of modern genres of Western art.

History and Characteristics of Medieval Art

Vikings Conquest Of England

Madonna and Child with Saint Jerome and Saint John the Baptist. Sold for $1,350,000 via Sotheby’s (May 2018).

The history of medieval art is expansive and covers a wide range of centuries and genres. Medieval art was prominent in European regions, the Middle East and North Africa, and some of the most precious examples of art from the Middle Ages can be found in churches, cathedrals, and other religious doctrines. Also prominent was the use of valuable materials such as gold for objects in churches, personal jewelry, backgrounds for mosaics, and applied as gold leaf in manuscripts.

Though the Middle Ages neither begin nor end neatly at any particular date, art historians generally classify medieval art into the following periods: Early Medieval Art, Romanesque Art, and Gothic Art.

Early Medieval Art

Mosaics on the floor of The Torcello Cathedral in Venice, Italy.

Art from this period was created between the fourth century and 1050 A.D. During this time, the Catholic Church and wealthy oligarchs commissioned projects for specific social and religious rituals. Many of the oldest examples of Christian art survive in the Roman catacombs or burial crypts beneath the city. Artists were commissioned for works featuring Biblical tales and classical themes for churches, while interiors were elaborately decorated with Roman mosaics, ornate paintings, and marble incrustations.

A large part of the art created during this time was also related to Byzantine work of the Eastern Mediterranean. It included a variety of media including glass mosaic, wall painting, metalwork, and carved relief in precious materials. Byzantine art was conservative in nature, primarily featuring religious subject matter, and much of it was characterized by a lack of realism. Paintings in particular were flat with little to no shadows or hint of three-dimensionality, and the subjects were typically more serious and somber.

Romanesque Art

Vita Christi Illuminated Manuscript. Sold for £1,700,500 via Sotheby’s (December 2007).

Romanesque art took shape in the eleventh century, initially developing in France then spreading to Spain, England, Flanders, Germany, Italy, and other regions. As the first style to spread across Europe, it symbolized the growing wealth of European cities and the power of church monasteries.

Romanesque buildings were characterized by semi-circular arches, thick stone walls, and durable construction. Sculptures were also prevalent during this time, where stone was used to represent biblical subject matter and church doctrines. Other significant media during this period include stained glass and the continued tradition of illuminated manuscripts.

Gothic Art

Left: Vierge a l’Enfant Sculpture. Sold for €1,488,250 via Sotheby’s (November 2007). Right: Vierge a l’Enfant Sculpture. Sold for €6,337,000 via Christie’s (November 2011).

Late medieval art includes Gothic art, which originated in the 12th century with the rebuilding of the Abbey Church in Saint-Denis, France. Gothic architecture offered revolutionary structural advancements such as ribbed vaults, flying buttresses, and decorative pinnacles all contributing to taller, lighter building designs.

Similarly, Gothic sculpture borrowed motifs from the architecture of the period since it was primarily used to decorate exteriors of cathedrals and other religious buildings. Figures depicted in Gothic sculpture became more realistic and closely related to medieval cathedrals. Paintings also became more lifelike, and with the rise of cities, foundation of universities, increase in trade, and creation of a new class who could afford to commission works, artists started to explore more secular themes and non-religious subject matter.

Famous Examples of Medieval Art

From religious paintings to gospels and exuberant architectural structures, there is much to be collected and studied from the Middle Ages. The subsequent socio-political currents throughout the world during this time led to an evolution of various genres and forms of art. Below are some notable examples.

Hagia Sophia

Built in 537 AD at the beginning of the medieval period under the direction of Byzantine emperor Justinian I, the Hagia Sophia epitomizes Byzantine architecture. Though originally built as a Greek Orthodox Christian cathedral, it was repurposed as a mosque after the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453, and today stands as a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. At the time it was built, it was the world’s tallest building, known for its iconic, massive dome.

The Lindisfarne Gospels

The Lindisfarne Gospels. Sold for £4600 via Dominic Winter Auctions (November 2017).

The Lindisfarne Gospels is an illuminated manuscript and one of the finest examples of Insular art, which combines Mediterranean, Anglo-Saxon, and Celtic elements. Assumed to have been produced around 715 A.D. by Northumbrian monk Eadfridth, the work consists of the four Christian gospels—Matthew, Luke, Mark, and John. The text is copied from St. Jerome’s Latin translation of the Christian Bible, also known as the Vulgate.

Palatine Chapel

Byzantine mosaics at The Palatine Chapel in Sicily.

The Palatine Chapel was completed in 804 A.D. as the remaining component of Charlemagne’s Palace of Aachen in present-day Germany. Though the palace itself no longer exists, it now acts as the central part of the Aachen Cathedral. The building is a dome chapel, considered an exemplary vision of Carolingian architecture—relating to the Frankish dynasty that ruled in western Europe from 750 to 987—due to its intricately designed core.

Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram

The Adoration of the Lamb from the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram.

Another notable example of illuminated manuscripts is that of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram. It was produced for the Holy Roman Emperor Charles II (the Bald) at his Carolingian Palace School in the 9th century. Richly decorated with gold lettering and highly colorful illustrations, it is one of the few surviving treasured bindings from the period.

Notre-Dame de Paris

Perhaps the most famous of Gothic cathedrals, the Notre-Dame’s construction began in 1160 under the Bishop Marice de Sully and has undergone many changes since. With its use of the ribbed vault and flying buttress, complete with stained glass windows and iconic sculptural elements, the church is vastly different from the Romanesque style that preceded it. It has suffered damage and deterioration in the centuries that have passed since its original construction, most recently in 2019 when a fire broke out during a restoration campaign and destroyed the 19th century spire. Plans and funds to rebuild are already underway.

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, it was very expensive to commission a work of art or architecture, which made it accessible only to large institutions, like the Church, or the wealthiest of patrons. As time went on, however, a considerable number of pieces could be found in small villages. The period as a whole lacked the knowledge and resources necessary to preserve older works, and the Renaissance and Baroque periods that followed did little to help. For these reasons, many works from the era were lost entirely, and much of the surviving work suffers a high rate of wear and tear.

Though the Renaissance period that followed reverted to the values of classical art, the 19th century saw a renewed interest and understanding of medieval art, highlighting its vast achievements in fine art and architecture. This was due in large part to a relatively new academic field of study—art history—which concentrated heavily on medieval art, and worked hard to date surviving works and analyze the development of many of the styles that came out of the era. Now, it is heavily collected by museums and private collectors, and many modern artists are inspired by the anti-realist and expressive elements that formulated from the medieval time period.

Sources: Oxford Art Online Art History Metropolitan Museum of Art Cleveland Museum of Art Study.com